Determinants of Income Diversification among Support Zone Communities of Nigeria National Parks
Daniel Etim Jacob
University of Uyo, NigeriaAbstrakt
This paper examined determinants of income diversification among households in support zones communities of national parks in Nigeria. This involved the use household data collected through questionnaires administered randomly among 1009 household heads in the study area. The data obtained were analyzed using probability and non-probability statistical analysis such as regression and analysis of variance to test for mean difference between parks. The result obtained indicates that majority of the household heads were male (92.57%0, between the age class of 21 – 40 years (44.90%), had non-formal education (38.16%), were farmers (65.21%), owned land (95.44%), with a household size of 1 – 5 (36.67%) and an annual income range of ₦401,000 - ₦600,000 (24.58%). Mean Simpson index of diversity showed a general low (0.375) level of income diversification among the households. Income, age, off-farm dependence, education, household size and occupation where significant (p<0.01) factors that affected households’ income diversification. The study recommends improvement in the existing infrastructures and social capital in the communities as avenues to improve the livelihood and ensure positive conservation behaviors in the study area.
Słowa kluczowe:
Income diversification, Protected area, Livelihood, Poverty, NigeriaBibliografia
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Adams, W. M., R. Aveling, D. Brockington, B. Dickson, J. Elliott, J. Hutton, D. Roe, B. Vira, and W. Wolmer (2004). Biodiversity Conservation and the Eradication of Poverty. Science 306:1146–1149.
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Adegoke, Y.O. (2013). Disparity in income distribution in Nigeria: a Lorenz curve and Gini index approach. Universal Journal of Management and Social Sciences, 3(7), pp. 16-30.
Adelekan I., Johnson C., Manda M., Matyas D., Mberu B., Parnell S. et al. (2015). Disaster risk and its reduction: An agenda for urban Africa’, International Development Planning Review 37, 33–43.
Angelsen, A., Larsen, H.O., Lund, J.F., Smith-Hall, C., Wunder, S. (2011). Measuring Livelihood and Environmental dependence: Method for research and fieldwork. London: Earthscan, 264pp.
Anyanwu, J.C. (2013). Marital Status Household size and Poverty in Nigeria: Evidence from the 2009/2010 Survey Data. Working Paper Series N0 180 African Development Bank, Tunis Tunisia.
Asmah, E. E. (2011). Rural livelihood diversification and agricultural household welfare in Ghana. J. Dev. Agric. Econ. 3(7):325-334.
Babatunde, R. O. and Qaim, M. (2009). Patterns of income diversification in rural Nigeria: determinants and impacts. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture, 48(4), 305–320.
Balikoowa, K. (2008). Impacts of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park on local peoples' livelihoods. Ås. IX bl., 72 pp.
Barrett, C.B., Reardon, T. and P. Webb (2001). ‘Nonfarm Income Diversification and Household Livelihood Strategies in Rural Africa: Concepts, Dynamics and Policy Implications’, Food Policy, 26 (5).
Cernea, M. M. and K. Schmidt-Soltau (2006). Poverty risks and national parks: Policy issues in conservation and resettlement. World Development 34(10): 1808-1830.
Chianu JN, Tsujii H, Kormawa P. (2004). Agriculture in the savannas of northern Nigeria: Pressures, transformation, damage and coping strategies. Outlook on Agriculture 33 (4): 247–253.
Clement, S., O. Schauman, T. Graham, F. Maggioni, S. Evans-Lacko, N. Bezborodovs, G. Thornicroft (2014). What is the impact of mental health-related stigma on help-seeking? A systematic review of quantitative and qualitative studies. Psychol. Med, pp. 1-17.
Department for International Development (DFID) (2004). DFID Rural urban development case study-Nigeria.Oxford Policy Management. Available online:<www.dfid.gov.uk>
Emelue, G. U. and Ukandu, M. (2014). Perception of Host Communities toward the Implementation of Park Laws in Okomu National Park. Journal of Research in Forestry Wildlife and Environment 6(2).
Ermias M, Ewmetu, Z and Teketay D. (2014). Non-Timber Forest Products and Household Incomes in Bonga Forest area, Southwestern Ethiopia. Journal of Forestry Research, 25(1): 215-223.
Ersado, L. (2006). Income Diversification in Zimbabwe: Welfare Implications from Urban and Rural Areas, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 3964.
FORMECU (1995). An Assessment of Land use and vegetation changes in Nigeria 1978 - 1995. Geomatis, Ontario, Canada.
Haggblade, S., Hazell, P. B. R., Reardon, T. (2007). Transforming the rural nonfarm economy. International Food Policy Research Institute and Johns Hopkins University Press, Washington DC.
Igbalajobi, O., Fatuase, A .I and Ajibefun, I. (2013). Determinants of Poverty Incidence among Rural Farmers in Ondo State, Nigeria. American Journal of Rural Development, 1 (5): 131-137.
Jacob, D. E. (2017). Resource Governance Structure in selected Nigeria National Parks and Impact on Rural Livelihood. Ph.D thesis submitted to Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria. 2546pp.
Jacob, D. E, Ottong, J.L., and Nelson, I. U. (2018). Determinant of households’ dependence on Ikot Ondo Community Forest, Nigeria. J. Biol. Ser. 1(3): 062-071.
Jacob, D. E., Udeagha A. U. and Nelson, I. U. (2016). Poverty Incidence among Rural Households in Ikot Ondo Community, Nigeria. Journal for Studies in Management and Planning, 2(5): 80-88.
Jacob, D. E., Nelson, I. U., Udoakapn, U. I. and Etuk, U. B. (2015).Wildlife Poaching in Nigeria National Parks: A Case study of Cross River National Park, International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation 5(4): 1-7. (doi:10.5376/ijmec.2015.05.0004)
Jacob, D.E., Udoakpan, U.I and Nelson, I.U. (2013). Issues in Conflict Resolution in Cross River National Park, South Eastern Nigeria. 1st International Conference on Environmental Crisis and its Solution. Scientific and Research Branch, Khouzeslan, Islamic Azad University, Kish Island, Iran, 13th-14th February, 2013. pp 76-82.
Javed, Z.H., and A. Asif (2011). Female households and poverty: A case study of Faisalabad District." International Journal of Peace and Development Studies 2:37-44.
Kaija, D. (2007). Income Diversification and Inequality in Rural Uganda: The Role of Non-Farm Activities. A Paper Presented for the Poverty Reduction Equity and Growth Network (PEGNet) Conference, Berlin. 6-7 September, 2007.
Lass, N. J., Ruscello, D. M., Stout, L. L. and Hoffmann, F. M. (1991). Peer perceptions of normal and voice-disordered children. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 43, 29-35.
Minot, N., Epprecht, M., Tram Anh, T.T. and Trung, L.Q. (2006). Income Diversification and Poverty in the Northern Uplands of Vietnam. Research Report Abstract 145. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington D.C.
Mohammed, S. O., Gajere, E. N., Eguaroje, E. O., Shaba, H., Ogbole, J. O., Mangut, Y. S. and Kolawole, I. S. (2013). Spatio-temporal analysis of the national parks in Nigeria using geographic information system. IFE J Sci 15(1):159–166.
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2016). NBS press briefing on Nigeria poverty profile 2010 report., 2010 www.nigerianstat.gov.ng (2011). Accessed 15th January.
Nelson, I. U., E. S Udo, D.E Jacob (2018). Profitability of ornamental plant business in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Eurasian Journal of Forest Science 6 (1), 35-43
Nelson, I. U., E. S. Udo and D. E. Jacob (2017). Economic analysis of firewood marketing in Uyo capital city, Akwa, Ibom state, Nigeria. Eurasian Journal of Forest Science, 5 (2), 26-43.
Ogunjinmi, A. A., Onadeko, S. A. and A. A. Adewumi (2012). An Empirical Study of the Effects of Personal Factors on Environmental Attitudes of Local Communities around Nigeria’s Protected Areas. The Journal of Transdisciplinary Environmental Studies 11(1):40-53.
Okali, D., Okpara, E. and Olawoye, J. (2001). The Case of Aba and its Region, South Eastern Nigeria. Working Paper Series on Rural –Urban Interactions and Livelihood Strategies. Human Settlements Programme, IIED, October.
Olawuyi, S. O. and Adetunji, M. O. (2013). Assessment of Rural Households Poverty in Nigeria: Evidence from Ogbomoso Agricultural Zone of Oyo State, Nigeria. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports 2(1): 35-45.
Olayide, O.E., Alene, A.D., and Ikpi, A. (2009). Determinants of Fertiliser Use in Northern Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences 6(2), 91-98.
Olorunsanya, Eniola O. and Omotesho, O. A. A. (2012). Gender Analysis of Poverty among Rural Farming Households in North Central Nigeria. European Journal of Social Sciences 28(3), pp.366-376.
Oluwatusin, F. M. and Sekumade, A. B. (2016). Farm Households Income Sources Diversification Behaviour in Nigeria. Journal of Natural Sciences Research, 6(4), 102–111.
Oyedele, D. (2014). Nigeria's Population Now 168m, Hits 221m in 2020. ThisDayLive.Com, 2014. Available at http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/nigerias-population-now-168m-hits-221m-in-2020/101436/. Accessed October 17, 2014.
Roe, D. (2008). The origins and evolution of the conservation‐poverty debate: a review of key literature, events and policy processes. Oryx 42:491–503.
Rubin, A. and Babbie, E. R. (eds.) (2008).. Research Methods for Social works. Sixth edition. United State: Thomas Brooks/Cole. p.668.
Senyo, D. B., Olivia, A. T. and Musah, A. (2015). Income diversification and financial stability of banks in Ghana. International Journal of Business and Social Science, p. 6.
Silver, O. C., O. C. Kelechi and E. C. Ogbonna (2015). Comparative analysis of expenditures of male-headed and female-headed cassava-based farm households in Umuahia agricultural zone of Abia State, Nigeria. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, 6(24): 135 – 143.
Sundaram, K. (2001). Employment and Poverty in 1990s: Further Results from NSS 55th Round Employment-Unemployment Survey 1999-2000’, Economic and Political Weekly 36(32).
Terborgh, J., C. van Schaik, L. Davenport and M. Rao (eds) (2002).. Making parks work: strategies for preserving tropical nature. Island Press. p. 511. ISBN 1-55963-905-9.
Tumusiime, D. M. (2006). Protected Areas and people in Uganda: Costs, benefits, livelihoods and narratives around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. MSc thesis submitted to the Norwegain University of Life Science, 125pp.
Udeagha, A. U. (2015). Impact of Climate Change on the contribution of Irvingia fruits and kernels to rural household economy in Cross River State, Nigeria. Unpublished M.Sc Thesis submitted to University of Uyo, Nigeria, 175pp.
Uganda Bureau of Statistics (2002). Uganda Bureau of Statistics: The 2002 Uganda Population and Housing Census, Economic characteristics. October 2006, Kampala, Uganda.
Ukpong, E. E., Jacob, D. E., Umoh, U. A. and Nelson. I. U. (2018). Determinants of Bushmeat Traders’ Income in Itu, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. International Technology and Science Publications, Environment 3:135-145
Wells, M., K. E. Brandon, and L. Hannah (1992). People and parks: Linking protected area management with local communities. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank (2007). World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development. Washington DC: World Bank. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/5990,
Adams, W. and Hutton, J. (2007P). eople, Parks and Poverty: Political Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation. Conservation and Society, 5 (2), 147-183.
Adams, W. M., R. Aveling, D. Brockington, B. Dickson, J. Elliott, J. Hutton, D. Roe, B. Vira, and W. Wolmer (2004). Biodiversity Conservation and the Eradication of Poverty. Science 306:1146–1149.
Adebayo, C.O., Akogwu, G.O and Yisa, E.S. (2012). Determinant s of Income Diversification Among Farm Households in Kaduna State: Application of Tobit Regression Model. Production Agriculture and Technology, 8 (2): 1-10.
Adegoke, Y.O. (2013). Disparity in income distribution in Nigeria: a Lorenz curve and Gini index approach. Universal Journal of Management and Social Sciences, 3(7), pp. 16-30.
Adelekan I., Johnson C., Manda M., Matyas D., Mberu B., Parnell S. et al. (2015). Disaster risk and its reduction: An agenda for urban Africa’, International Development Planning Review 37, 33–43.
Angelsen, A., Larsen, H.O., Lund, J.F., Smith-Hall, C., Wunder, S. (2011). Measuring Livelihood and Environmental dependence: Method for research and fieldwork. London: Earthscan, 264pp.
Anyanwu, J.C. (2013). Marital Status Household size and Poverty in Nigeria: Evidence from the 2009/2010 Survey Data. Working Paper Series N0 180 African Development Bank, Tunis Tunisia.
Asmah, E. E. (2011). Rural livelihood diversification and agricultural household welfare in Ghana. J. Dev. Agric. Econ. 3(7):325-334.
Babatunde, R. O. and Qaim, M. (2009). Patterns of income diversification in rural Nigeria: determinants and impacts. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture, 48(4), 305–320.
Balikoowa, K. (2008). Impacts of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park on local peoples' livelihoods. Ås. IX bl., 72 pp.
Barrett, C.B., Reardon, T. and P. Webb (2001). ‘Nonfarm Income Diversification and Household Livelihood Strategies in Rural Africa: Concepts, Dynamics and Policy Implications’, Food Policy, 26 (5).
Cernea, M. M. and K. Schmidt-Soltau (2006). Poverty risks and national parks: Policy issues in conservation and resettlement. World Development 34(10): 1808-1830.
Chianu JN, Tsujii H, Kormawa P. (2004). Agriculture in the savannas of northern Nigeria: Pressures, transformation, damage and coping strategies. Outlook on Agriculture 33 (4): 247–253.
Clement, S., O. Schauman, T. Graham, F. Maggioni, S. Evans-Lacko, N. Bezborodovs, G. Thornicroft (2014). What is the impact of mental health-related stigma on help-seeking? A systematic review of quantitative and qualitative studies. Psychol. Med, pp. 1-17.
Department for International Development (DFID) (2004). DFID Rural urban development case study-Nigeria.Oxford Policy Management. Available online:<www.dfid.gov.uk>
Emelue, G. U. and Ukandu, M. (2014). Perception of Host Communities toward the Implementation of Park Laws in Okomu National Park. Journal of Research in Forestry Wildlife and Environment 6(2).
Ermias M, Ewmetu, Z and Teketay D. (2014). Non-Timber Forest Products and Household Incomes in Bonga Forest area, Southwestern Ethiopia. Journal of Forestry Research, 25(1): 215-223.
Ersado, L. (2006). Income Diversification in Zimbabwe: Welfare Implications from Urban and Rural Areas, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 3964.
FORMECU (1995). An Assessment of Land use and vegetation changes in Nigeria 1978 - 1995. Geomatis, Ontario, Canada.
Haggblade, S., Hazell, P. B. R., Reardon, T. (2007). Transforming the rural nonfarm economy. International Food Policy Research Institute and Johns Hopkins University Press, Washington DC.
Igbalajobi, O., Fatuase, A .I and Ajibefun, I. (2013). Determinants of Poverty Incidence among Rural Farmers in Ondo State, Nigeria. American Journal of Rural Development, 1 (5): 131-137.
Jacob, D. E. (2017). Resource Governance Structure in selected Nigeria National Parks and Impact on Rural Livelihood. Ph.D thesis submitted to Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria. 2546pp.
Jacob, D. E, Ottong, J.L., and Nelson, I. U. (2018). Determinant of households’ dependence on Ikot Ondo Community Forest, Nigeria. J. Biol. Ser. 1(3): 062-071.
Jacob, D. E., Udeagha A. U. and Nelson, I. U. (2016). Poverty Incidence among Rural Households in Ikot Ondo Community, Nigeria. Journal for Studies in Management and Planning, 2(5): 80-88.
Jacob, D. E., Nelson, I. U., Udoakapn, U. I. and Etuk, U. B. (2015).Wildlife Poaching in Nigeria National Parks: A Case study of Cross River National Park, International Journal of Molecular Ecology and Conservation 5(4): 1-7. (doi:10.5376/ijmec.2015.05.0004)
Jacob, D.E., Udoakpan, U.I and Nelson, I.U. (2013). Issues in Conflict Resolution in Cross River National Park, South Eastern Nigeria. 1st International Conference on Environmental Crisis and its Solution. Scientific and Research Branch, Khouzeslan, Islamic Azad University, Kish Island, Iran, 13th-14th February, 2013. pp 76-82.
Javed, Z.H., and A. Asif (2011). Female households and poverty: A case study of Faisalabad District." International Journal of Peace and Development Studies 2:37-44.
Kaija, D. (2007). Income Diversification and Inequality in Rural Uganda: The Role of Non-Farm Activities. A Paper Presented for the Poverty Reduction Equity and Growth Network (PEGNet) Conference, Berlin. 6-7 September, 2007.
Lass, N. J., Ruscello, D. M., Stout, L. L. and Hoffmann, F. M. (1991). Peer perceptions of normal and voice-disordered children. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 43, 29-35.
Minot, N., Epprecht, M., Tram Anh, T.T. and Trung, L.Q. (2006). Income Diversification and Poverty in the Northern Uplands of Vietnam. Research Report Abstract 145. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington D.C.
Mohammed, S. O., Gajere, E. N., Eguaroje, E. O., Shaba, H., Ogbole, J. O., Mangut, Y. S. and Kolawole, I. S. (2013). Spatio-temporal analysis of the national parks in Nigeria using geographic information system. IFE J Sci 15(1):159–166.
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2016). NBS press briefing on Nigeria poverty profile 2010 report., 2010 www.nigerianstat.gov.ng (2011). Accessed 15th January.
Nelson, I. U., E. S Udo, D.E Jacob (2018). Profitability of ornamental plant business in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Eurasian Journal of Forest Science 6 (1), 35-43
Nelson, I. U., E. S. Udo and D. E. Jacob (2017). Economic analysis of firewood marketing in Uyo capital city, Akwa, Ibom state, Nigeria. Eurasian Journal of Forest Science, 5 (2), 26-43.
Ogunjinmi, A. A., Onadeko, S. A. and A. A. Adewumi (2012). An Empirical Study of the Effects of Personal Factors on Environmental Attitudes of Local Communities around Nigeria’s Protected Areas. The Journal of Transdisciplinary Environmental Studies 11(1):40-53.
Okali, D., Okpara, E. and Olawoye, J. (2001). The Case of Aba and its Region, South Eastern Nigeria. Working Paper Series on Rural –Urban Interactions and Livelihood Strategies. Human Settlements Programme, IIED, October.
Olawuyi, S. O. and Adetunji, M. O. (2013). Assessment of Rural Households Poverty in Nigeria: Evidence from Ogbomoso Agricultural Zone of Oyo State, Nigeria. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports 2(1): 35-45.
Olayide, O.E., Alene, A.D., and Ikpi, A. (2009). Determinants of Fertiliser Use in Northern Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences 6(2), 91-98.
Olorunsanya, Eniola O. and Omotesho, O. A. A. (2012). Gender Analysis of Poverty among Rural Farming Households in North Central Nigeria. European Journal of Social Sciences 28(3), pp.366-376.
Oluwatusin, F. M. and Sekumade, A. B. (2016). Farm Households Income Sources Diversification Behaviour in Nigeria. Journal of Natural Sciences Research, 6(4), 102–111.
Oyedele, D. (2014). Nigeria's Population Now 168m, Hits 221m in 2020. ThisDayLive.Com, 2014. Available at http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/nigerias-population-now-168m-hits-221m-in-2020/101436/. Accessed October 17, 2014.
Roe, D. (2008). The origins and evolution of the conservation‐poverty debate: a review of key literature, events and policy processes. Oryx 42:491–503.
Rubin, A. and Babbie, E. R. (eds.) (2008).. Research Methods for Social works. Sixth edition. United State: Thomas Brooks/Cole. p.668.
Senyo, D. B., Olivia, A. T. and Musah, A. (2015). Income diversification and financial stability of banks in Ghana. International Journal of Business and Social Science, p. 6.
Silver, O. C., O. C. Kelechi and E. C. Ogbonna (2015). Comparative analysis of expenditures of male-headed and female-headed cassava-based farm households in Umuahia agricultural zone of Abia State, Nigeria. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, 6(24): 135 – 143.
Sundaram, K. (2001). Employment and Poverty in 1990s: Further Results from NSS 55th Round Employment-Unemployment Survey 1999-2000’, Economic and Political Weekly 36(32).
Terborgh, J., C. van Schaik, L. Davenport and M. Rao (eds) (2002).. Making parks work: strategies for preserving tropical nature. Island Press. p. 511. ISBN 1-55963-905-9.
Tumusiime, D. M. (2006). Protected Areas and people in Uganda: Costs, benefits, livelihoods and narratives around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. MSc thesis submitted to the Norwegain University of Life Science, 125pp.
Udeagha, A. U. (2015). Impact of Climate Change on the contribution of Irvingia fruits and kernels to rural household economy in Cross River State, Nigeria. Unpublished M.Sc Thesis submitted to University of Uyo, Nigeria, 175pp.
Uganda Bureau of Statistics (2002). Uganda Bureau of Statistics: The 2002 Uganda Population and Housing Census, Economic characteristics. October 2006, Kampala, Uganda.
Ukpong, E. E., Jacob, D. E., Umoh, U. A. and Nelson. I. U. (2018). Determinants of Bushmeat Traders’ Income in Itu, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. International Technology and Science Publications, Environment 3:135-145
Wells, M., K. E. Brandon, and L. Hannah (1992). People and parks: Linking protected area management with local communities. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank (2007). World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development. Washington DC: World Bank. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/5990,
Jacob, D. E. (2020). Determinants of Income Diversification among Support Zone Communities of Nigeria National Parks. Economic and Environmental Studies, 20(1 (53), 7–23. https://doi.org/10.25167/ees.2020.53.1
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