Carriers’ liability in the European Union in the era of migration and the refugee crisis
Maciej Cesarz
University of Wrocław, Faculty of Social Scienceshttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-9995-719X
Abstract
The presented article attempts to put carrier sanctions policies in a perspective of the migration and refugee crisis in the EU. The development, motives and rationale of carriers’ liability are explored to highlight the process of privatisation and offshoring of immigration control at the level of the EU and its Member States. The article is based on an extensive review of documents and the literature related to the carrier sanctions policy and the migration crisis. An interdisciplinary approach based on European Studies is mostly applied. The migration and refugee crisis is examined as one of the most relevant factors shaping the carrier sanctions policy in the EU. The current legal and political context is presented, including binding international and EU regulations related to carriers’ responsibilities. The link between the carrier sanctions and visa policy is explored, as well as main arguments for and against maintaining the measures concerned. The paper argues that carriers sanctions constitute a relevant supporting tool for the national and EU visa policy. Aimed mostly at curbing migratory flows and combating illegal immigration, carriers’ liability legislation may lead to exclusion from access to a fair and efficient asylum procedure.
Keywords:
carrier sanctions, migration crisis, EU Integrated Border ManagementReferences
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Bloom, T., Risse, V. (2014). Examining hidden coercion at state borders: Why carrier sanctions cannot be justified. Ethnic and Global Politics, vol.7, no 2, 65-82.
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Moreno-Lax, V. (2017). Accessing Asylum in Europe. Extraterritorial Border Controls and Refugee Rights under EU Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Morgades-Gil, S. (2017). Forced Migration Management and the Right to Access to an Asylum Procedure in the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice: Human Rights Between Responsibility and Solidarity. Fredom, Security & Justice: European Legal Studies, no.1, 125-144.
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Rodenhäuser, T. (2014). Another brick in the wall: Carrier sanctions and the privatization of immigration control, International Journal of Refugee Law, 2014, no.26, 223-247.
Sasnal, P. (2015). Niekontrolowane Migracje do Unii Europejskiej. Accessed 1 June 2018. https://www.pism.pl/files/?id_plik=20992.
Scholten, S., (2015).The Privatisation of Immigration Control through Carrier Sanctions. The Role of Private Transport Companies in Dutch and British Immigration Control. Leiden: Brill Nijhoff.
Scholten, S., Minderhoud, P. (2008). Regulating Immigration Control: Carrier Sanctions in the Netherlands. European Journal of Migration and Law, vol.10, no.2, 123-147.
Skolimowska, A. Grzybowska-Walecka, K. (eds.). (2016). Dlaczego-europeistyka? Europa w czasie kryzysu. Warszawa: Instytut Politologii Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie.
Torpey, J. C.(2000). The invention of the passport: surveillance, citizenship, and the state. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
UNHCR, (2017). Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2016. Accessed 1 June 2018. http://www.unhcr.org/5943e8a34.
Fragile States Index (2017). Accessed 1 June 2018. http://fundforpeace.org/fsi/.
Consilium, (2016). Council adopts EU Passenger Name Record (PNR) directive. Accessed 1 June 2018. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2016/04/21-council-adopts-eu-pnr-directive/.
Zampagni, F., (2013). Who moves? Schengen Visa Policy and Implementation in Consulates. A fieldwork study from the Embassy of Italy in Senegal, (doctoral dissertation). Accessed 1 June 2018. https://etd.adm.unipi.it/t/etd-05022013-171816/.
Bloom, T., Risse, V. (2014). Examining hidden coercion at state borders: Why carrier sanctions cannot be justified. Ethnic and Global Politics, vol.7, no 2, 65-82.
Books. Jones, R. (2012b). Why Build a Border Wall?, Nacla Report on the Americas. vol. 45, no. 3.
Collinson, S. (1996). Visa requirements, carrier sanctions, “safe third countries” and “readmission” : the development of an asylum “buffer zone” in Europe. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 21(1), 76-90.
Council of the EU (2001). Directive 2001/51/EC of the Council, supplementing the provisions of Article 26 of the Convention implementing the Schengen Agreement of 14 June 1985, of 28 June 2001, in OJ L 187, 10 July 2001.
Council of the EU (2004). Directive 2004/82/EC of the Council, on the obligation of carriers to communicate passenger data, of 29 April 2004, in OJ L 261, of 6 August 2004. In OJ L 261/24.
Cruz, A. (1994). Carriers liability in the Member States of the European Union. Churches’ Commission for Migrants in Europe [CCME], vol.17.
ECRE (2007). Defending Refugees’ Access to Protection in Europe. Accessed 1 June 2018. https://www.ecre.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/ECRE-Defending-Refugees-Access-to-Protection-in-Europe_December-2007.pdf.
European Commission, (2015). Addressing the Refugee Crisis in Europe: The Role of EU External Action, Brussels, 9.9.2015, JOIN (2015) 40 final. Accessed 1 June 2018. https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-migration/proposal-implementation-package/docs/communication_on_addressing_the_external_dimension_of_the_refugee_crisis_en.pdf.
European Parliament, Council of the EU (2016). Directive (EU) 2016/681 of the European Parliament and of the Council, on the use of passenger name record (PNR) data for the prevention, detection, investigation and prosecution of terrorist offences and serious crime, of 27 April 2016, in OJ L 119/132.
Europol, (2015). Migrant smuggling in the EU. Accessed 1 June 2018. https://www.europol.europa.eu/publications-documents/migrant-smuggling-in-eu.
EY, (2016). Managing the EU migration crisis - From panic to planning.
Feller, E. (1989). Carrier Sanctions and International Law. International Journal of Refugee Law, 1(1), 48-66.
Frontex, (2018). Risk Analysis for 2018. Accessed 1 November 2018. www.frontex.europa.eu
Gammeltoft-Hansen, T. (2016). The Practice of Shared Responsibility in relation to Private Actor Involvement in Migration Management. SHARES Research Paper, no 83.
Guild, E., Costello C., Garlick M., Moreno V. (2015). The 2015 Refugee Crisis in the European Union, CEPS, no 332, September 2015, 1-6.
Lehne, S. (2016). How the Refugee Crisis Will Reshape the EU. Accessed 1 November 2018, https://carnegieeurope.eu/2016/02/04/how-refugee-crisis-will-reshape-eu-pub-62650.
Meloni, A. (2013). EU Visa and Border Control Policies: What Roles for Security and Reciprocity? In: D.Bigo, E.Guild, S.Carrera,(eds.) Foreigners, Refugees or Minorities? Rethinking People in the Context of Border Controls and Visas. London: Ashgate Publishing Company.
Moreno-Lax, V. (2017). Accessing Asylum in Europe. Extraterritorial Border Controls and Refugee Rights under EU Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Morgades-Gil, S. (2017). Forced Migration Management and the Right to Access to an Asylum Procedure in the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice: Human Rights Between Responsibility and Solidarity. Fredom, Security & Justice: European Legal Studies, no.1, 125-144.
Nicholson, E.T. (2011). Cutting Off the Flow : Extraterritorial Controls to Prevent Migration. Accessed 1 June 2018, http://lastradainternational.org/lsidocs/cutting%20off%20the%20flow.pdf
Reinish, A., Fink, M.(2013). Non-Refoulement and Extraterritorial Immigration Control – The Case of Immigration Liaison Officers. Seminar in International Law: EU – External and Internal Security. Accessed 1 June 2018. https://eur-int-comp-law.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/i_deicl/VR/VR_Personal/Reinisch/Internetpublikationen/Baxewanosl.pdf
Rodenhäuser, T. (2014). Another brick in the wall: Carrier sanctions and the privatization of immigration control, International Journal of Refugee Law, 2014, no.26, 223-247.
Sasnal, P. (2015). Niekontrolowane Migracje do Unii Europejskiej. Accessed 1 June 2018. https://www.pism.pl/files/?id_plik=20992.
Scholten, S., (2015).The Privatisation of Immigration Control through Carrier Sanctions. The Role of Private Transport Companies in Dutch and British Immigration Control. Leiden: Brill Nijhoff.
Scholten, S., Minderhoud, P. (2008). Regulating Immigration Control: Carrier Sanctions in the Netherlands. European Journal of Migration and Law, vol.10, no.2, 123-147.
Skolimowska, A. Grzybowska-Walecka, K. (eds.). (2016). Dlaczego-europeistyka? Europa w czasie kryzysu. Warszawa: Instytut Politologii Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie.
Torpey, J. C.(2000). The invention of the passport: surveillance, citizenship, and the state. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
UNHCR, (2017). Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2016. Accessed 1 June 2018. http://www.unhcr.org/5943e8a34.
Fragile States Index (2017). Accessed 1 June 2018. http://fundforpeace.org/fsi/.
Consilium, (2016). Council adopts EU Passenger Name Record (PNR) directive. Accessed 1 June 2018. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2016/04/21-council-adopts-eu-pnr-directive/.
Zampagni, F., (2013). Who moves? Schengen Visa Policy and Implementation in Consulates. A fieldwork study from the Embassy of Italy in Senegal, (doctoral dissertation). Accessed 1 June 2018. https://etd.adm.unipi.it/t/etd-05022013-171816/.
Cesarz, M. (2019). Carriers’ liability in the European Union in the era of migration and the refugee crisis. Border and Regional Studies, 7(1), 7–24. https://doi.org/10.25167/ppbs678
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